Between Society and Self: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Psychosocial and Socio-Economic Drivers of Substance Use Among Youth in Kaduna Metropolis, Northwest Nigeria

Authors

  • Abdullahi AY Ahmadu Bello University image/svg+xml Author
  • Summayyah MB Ahmadu Bello University image/svg+xml Author
  • Audu IA Ahmadu Bello University image/svg+xml Author
  • Sani K Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital image/svg+xml Author
  • Muhammad A Federal Neuro Psychiatric hospital kaduna Author
  • Abusufyan A usman danfodio university teaching hospital Author
  • Fahad AB Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital image/svg+xml Author
  • Bashir AY Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital image/svg+xml Author

Keywords:

Psychosocial Factors, Social Support, Socio-Economic Factors, Youth Substance Use

Abstract

Substance use among young people has emerged as a critical public health concern globally, with rising prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa. Psychosocial factors such as peer influence, family dynamics, social support, and psychological wellbeing are known drivers, yet little is documented in northern Nigeria. This study investigated the psychological and socio-economic determinants of substance use among youth in Kaduna Metropolis. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 1000 youths aged 18–35 years, selected through multistage cluster sampling. Standardised instruments were used: Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST), General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, Pearson correlations, and multivariate logistic regression were employed. The lifetime prevalence of substance use was 42.8% (n=428), and current use prevalence was 36.8% (n=368). Alcohol (32.5%), cannabis (16.8%), and tramadol (14.2%) were the most common substances. Correlation analysis revealed significant interrelationships among all psychosocial and socio-economic variables. Multivariate analysis revealed very high and significant correlations between current substance use and peer pressure (AOR=8.12, 95% CI: 5.78-11.41, p<0.001), family dysfunction (AOR=4.95, 95% CI: 3.52-6.96, p<0.001), psychological distress (AOR=5.65, 95% CI: 4.01-7.96, p<0.001), and low SES (AOR=3.22, 95% CI: 2.28-4.55, p<0.001). High perceived social support was protective (AOR=0.38, 95% CI: 0.26-0.55, p<0.001). Psychosocial factors strongly influence substance use among Kaduna youth. Interventions targeting peer group dynamics, mental health, and family/social support are urgently needed.

Author Biographies

  • Abdullahi AY, Ahmadu Bello University

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

  • Summayyah MB, Ahmadu Bello University

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria

  • Audu IA, Ahmadu Bello University

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

  • Sani K, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria

  • Muhammad A, Federal Neuro Psychiatric hospital kaduna

    Federal Neuropsychiatry Hospital, Kaduna, Nigeria.

  • Abusufyan A, usman danfodio university teaching hospital

    Department of Psychiatry, Usmanu Danfodio University Teaching Hospital, Sokoto, Nigeria

  • Fahad AB, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital

    Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria

  • Bashir AY, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital

    Department of Psychiatry, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital, Zaria Nigeria

References

1. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2022 [Internet]. Vienna: UNODC; 2022 [cited 2025 Mar 10]. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2022.html

2. Steinberg L. A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Dev Rev. 2008;28(1):78-106.

3. World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol and health 2018 [Internet]. Geneva: WHO; 2018 [cited 2025 Mar 10]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565639

4. Adamson TA, Ogunlesi AO, Morakinyo O, Akinhanmi A, Osinowo T. Pattern of substance use among senior students of tertiary institutions in a Nigerian population. J Med Biomed Res. 2005;4:47-54.

5. Abdulmalik J, Omigbodun O, Beida O, Adedokun B. Psychoactive substance use among children and adolescents in a rural community in Nigeria. Afr J Drug Alcohol Stud. 2008;7(2):73-80.

6. National Bureau of Statistics, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Drug Use in Nigeria 2018 [Internet]. Abuja: NBS; 2018 [cited 2025 Mar 10]. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/nigeria/Drug-Use-Survey-Nigeria-2018.pdf

7. Lasebikan VO, Ola BA. Prevalence and correlates of alcohol use among a sample of Nigerian semirural community dwellers in Nigeria. J Addict. 2016;2016:2831594.

8. Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Miller JY. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychol Bull. 1992;112(1):64-105.

9. Simons-Morton B, Farhat T. Recent findings on peer group influences on adolescent smoking. J Prim Prev. 2010;31(4):191-208.

10. Oshodi OY, Aina OF, Onajole AT. Substance use among secondary school students in an urban setting in Nigeria: prevalence and associated factors. Afr J Psychiatry. 2010;13(1):52-57.

11. Brook JS, Brook DW, Gordon AS, Whiteman M, Cohen P. The psychosocial etiology of adolescent drug use: a family interactional approach. Genet Soc Gen Psychol Monogr. 1990;116(2):111-267.

12. Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Egbewale BE, Olowookere EI. Assessment of family functionality and prevalence of drug abuse among secondary school students in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. J Educ Soc Res. 2015;5(1):271-8.

13. Boardman JD, Finch BK, Ellison CG, Williams DR, Jackson JS. Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults. J Health Soc Behav. 2001;42(2):151-65.

14. Karriker-Jaffe KJ. Areas of disadvantage: a systematic review of effects of area-level socioeconomic status on substance use outcomes. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2011;30(1):84-95.

15. Khantzian EJ. The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: a reconsideration and recent applications. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 1997;4(5):231-44.

16. Oshodi OY, Olagunju AT, Adeyemi JD. Comorbidity of depression and substance use amongst medical students in Lagos, Nigeria. J Addict. 2015;2015:590462.

17. Scheier LM, Botvin GJ, Griffin KW. Self-esteem, substance use, and protective factors among adolescents. Psychol Addict Behav. 2001;15(4):346-55.

18. Moreno MA, Whitehill JM. Influence of social media on alcohol use in adolescents and young adults. Alcohol Res. 2014;36(1):91-100.

19. Cohen S, Wills TA. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychol Bull. 1985;98(2):310-57.

20. Wills TA, Cleary SD. How are social support effects mediated? A test with parental support and adolescent substance use. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996;71(5):937-52.

21. Degenhardt L, Whiteford HA, Ferrari AJ, Baxter AJ, Charlson FJ, Hall WD, et al. Global burden of disease attributable to illicit drug use and dependence: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2013;382(9904):1564-74.

22. Igwe WC, Ojinnaka NC, Ejiofor SO, Emechebe GO, Ibe BC. Socio-demographic correlates of psychoactive substance abuse among secondary school students in Enugu, Nigeria. Eur J Soc Sci. 2009;12(2):277-83.

23. Daniel WW, Cross CL. Biostatistics: A Foundation for Analysis in the Health Sciences. 10th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2013.

24. Oyedeji GA. Socio-economic and cultural background of hospitalized children in Ilesha. Niger J Paediatr. 1985;12(4):111-7.

25. Humeniuk R, Ali R, Babor TF, Farrell M, Formigoni ML, Jittiwutikarn J, et al. Validation of the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). Addiction. 2008;103(6):1039-47.

26. Adamson TA, Onifade PO, Ogunwale A. Trends in substance use and related disorders in Nigeria. Niger J Psychiatry. 2010;8(1):1-6.

27. Clasen DR, Brown BB. The multidimensionality of peer pressure in adolescence. J Youth Adolesc. 1985;14(6):451-68.

28. Epstein NB, Baldwin LM, Bishop DS. The McMaster Family Assessment Device. J Marital Fam Ther. 1983;9(2):171-80.

29. Abiodun O, Adelekan M, Ogunremi O, Onifade O, Obiama O. Pattern of substance use among psychiatric patients in a Nigerian teaching hospital. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1994;29(5):211-5.

30. Rosenberg M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1965.

31. Akinsola EF, Nwajei AD. Test anxiety, depression and academic performance: assessment of the mediating role of undergraduate students' self-esteem. Niger J Psychol Res. 2013;9:1-9.

32. Goldberg DP, Williams P. A user's guide to the General Health Questionnaire. Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson; 1988.

33. Gureje O, Obikoya B. The GHQ-12 as a screening tool in a primary care setting. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1990;25(5):276-80.

34. Moreno MA, Briner LR, Williams A, Brockman L, Walker L, Christakis DA. A content analysis of displayed alcohol references on a social networking web site. J Adolesc Health. 2010;47(2):168-75.

35. Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK. The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. J Pers Assess. 1988;52(1):30-41.

36. Adewuya AO, Ola BA, Aloba OO, Mapayi BM. Validation of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) in a Nigerian student population. J Child Adolesc Ment Health. 2007;19(2):111-7.

37. Audu IA, Momohjimoh A, Olorukooba AA, Bako IA, Kurfi AM, Ocheja A, et al. Prevalence and factors associated with substance abuse among in-school adolescents in Ilorin, Nigeria. J Community Med Prim Health Care. 2020;32(2):90-104.

38. Gureje O, Degenhardt L, Olley B, Uwakwe R, Udofia O, Wakil A, et al. A descriptive epidemiology of substance use and substance use disorders in Nigeria during the early 21st century. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;91(1):1-9.

39. Balogun SK. Prevalence and psychosocial factors associated with substance use among adolescents in Southwestern Nigeria. Ife Psychol. 2006;14(2):183-201.

40. Doku D, Koivusilta L, Raisamo S, Rimpelä A. Socio-economic differences in alcohol and drug use among Ghanaian adolescents. Addict Behav. 2013;38(10):2559-64.

41. Atwoli L, Mungla PA, Ndung'u MN, Kinoti KC, Ogot EM. Prevalence of substance use among college students in Eldoret, western Kenya. BMC Psychiatry. 2011;11:34.

42. Saban A, Flisher AJ, Grimsrud A, Morojele N, London L, Williams DR, et al. The association between substance use and common mental disorders in young adults: results from the South African Stress and Health (SASH) survey. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;17 Suppl 1:11.

43. Wechsberg WM, Luseno WK, Karg RS, Young S, Rodman N. Alcohol, cannabis, and methamphetamine use and other risk behaviours among Black and Coloured South African women: a small randomized trial in the Western Cape. Int J Drug Policy. 2008;19(2):130-9.

44. Singer M, Bulled N, Ostrach B, Mendenhall E. Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health. Lancet. 2017;389(10072):941-50.

45. Mendenhall E, Kohrt BA, Norris SA, Ndetei D, Prabhakaran D. Non-communicable disease syndemics: poverty, depression, and diabetes among low-income populations. Lancet. 2017;389(10072):951-63.

Downloads

Published

2026-01-02

Issue

Vol. 7 No. 1 (2026): Psychosocial and Socio-Economic Drivers of Substance Use

Section

Articles